Personal pronouns - Les Pronoms Personnels

Personal pronouns - Les Pronoms Personnels

Personal pronouns - Les Pronoms Personnels
1 Formes 

	Pronom	Pronom
	sujet	complément d’objet
Singulier
1re personne	I	me
2e personne	you	you
3e personne -masculin -féminin -indéfini -neutre	he she one it	him her one it
Pluriel
1re personne	we	us
2e personne	you	you
3e personne	they	them

2 Emplois

You correspond aux formes singulier et pluriel de la deuxième personne (= tu, vous). On l’emploie (de même que les possessifs your, yours) quel que soit le degré de familiarité.

On emploie le pronom sujet :
· Quand il est sujet du verbe :
Last night I saw someone I hadn’t seen for years.
How many tickets are we going to buy?

Quand le sujet est composé de plusieurs personnes + I, le pronom sujet est placé en dernier :
My sister and I went to the same school.

On emploie le pronom complément d’objet :
· Quand il est complément du verbe (il n’y a pas de différence entre le complément d’objet direct, indirect et d’attribution) :
Does Alistair know them very well?
They gave you dinner. Did you thank them for it?

· Après les prépositions :
Chris will be staying with us.
You need to speak to him.

Après le verbe be, après des mots comme than et as, lorsque le pronom apparaît seul et que le verbe est omis, en anglais soutenu, on emploie le pronom sujet :
It was he who told me the news.
She is taller than I. (= She is taller than I am.)

Note :
You est aussi utilisé pour représenter les "gens en général" (français = on), par exemple pour demander ou donner des renseignements :
How do you get to the train station?
They say the weather will be fine, but you can never be sure.

* They, them, etc. est souvent utilisé en anglais familier pour renvoyer à une seule personne, si son sexe est inconnu ou s’il n’est pas essentiel de le connaître :
If you find a good piano teacher, tell me about them.

* Des noms au singulier qui font référence à des groupes de personnes, comme par exemple les noms d’équipes sportives ou de sociétés commerciales, sont souvent considérés comme des pluriels et sont repris par they, etc. :

The union say that they will go on strike.
Liverpool have sacked their manager.

* En anglais moins familier, le pronom indéfini utilisé pour parler des "gens en général" est one (one’s au cas possessif), mais son emploi est plus formel que you :
The climate becomes drier as one moves east.

* Dans la langue parlée on emploie le pronom complément d’objet plutôt que le pronom sujet, surtout lorsqu’il apparaît seul :
Who’s there? Me, it’s me, Jimmy.
I hope that’s not him again.
She’s taller than me.
He doesn’t know as much as her.

* Notez cependant que la forme d’insistance du pronom sujet, "moi", est rendue par I
I did it. (= C’est moi qui l’ai fait.)

Les Noms Composés

Les Noms Composés

1 Formes

postman; a furniture shop; mother-in-law; a woman doctor

· On associe souvent deux noms pour former un nom composé. Dans un nom composé le nom principal est toujours le dernier cité et le nom qui le précède joue le rôle d’un déterminant. Le dernier nom est celui qu’on traduit en premier.
a railway station; a computer system; a fashion model; a bus station

· Parfois un nom composé dont les deux termes sont fréquemment associés peut s’écrire en un seul mot ; ce n’est pas toujours le cas :
a postman mais a post office ; a teacup mais a coffee cup

· Le nom qui détermine le nom principal du nom composé peut être modifié par un adjectif ou être lui-même un autre nom composé. À l’écrit, un trait d’union lie ces éléments et permet de les différencier les uns des autres :
the hot-water tap; a mail-order catalogue; a French-government foreign-affairs spokesman

· Les noms placés avant le nom principal peuvent apporter différents éléments de signification et préciser ce nom. Ils peuvent préciser :
- le but
a sleeping bag (= a bag for sleeping)
running shoes (= shoes for running)

- la matière
iron railings (= railings made of iron)
a glass door (= a door made of glass)

- le lieu
our Manchester office (= our office in Manchester)

- le sujet
murder mystery (= a mystery involving a murder/murders)

2 Pluriel
Le pluriel des noms composés cités précédemment suit la règle générale.
Seul le dernier mot prend la marque du pluriel :
express trains; Easter eggs
boyfriends; grown-ups

Autres cas
· Quand le dernier élément du nom composé n’est pas un nom, ou est un indénombrable, c’est souvent le premier nom qui porte la marque du pluriel :
passers-by; fathers-in-law; ladies-in-waiting

· D’autres ont un pluriel double : ils font référence à des personnes et sont composés de deux noms qui qualifient au même degré la personne concernée :
women doctors; menservants

Le Cas Possessif

Le Cas Possessif

· Le cas possessif indique le plus souvent une relation de possession :
Mary’s suitcase

· Il peut aussi indiquer une relation d’ordre plus général
women’s studies (= ‘studies for or about women’)

· Le possesseur est généralement une personne ou un groupe d’individus (company, team) ou un animal. Cependant, on peut aussi trouver des noms référant à des choses, ou à des notions abstraites :
Mary’s car; the tree’s branches
the company’s profits; life’s little pleasures

1 Formes
· Pour les noms singuliers ou pluriels qui ne se terminent pas en -s :
nom + -’s + nom
cat’s, wife’s, girl’s, boy’s, boss’s, women’s, James’s
(notez bien l’apostrophe devant le s)

· Pour les noms qui se terminent par un -s :
nom + -’ + nom
cats’, wives’, girls’, boys’, bosses’
(notez bien que seule l’apostrophe marque la relation)
my sister’s friend è my sisters’ friend
a child’s toyè children’s toys


Pour les noms propres de personnes terminés en [-s] ou [-z] on prononce généralement [-z] :
the Jones’s house
Pour les noms pluriels déjà terminés en [-s] la prononciation reste la même :
the United States
the United States’ Senate

2 Emplois
· Le nom au cas possessif (le possesseur) et son déterminant précèdent le nom de la chose possédée (le possédé) :
our uncles’ houses (= the houses of our uncles)

· Lorsque le possédé a déjà été mentionné, il est inutile de le répéter :
‘That car over there, is it your father’s?’ ‘No, it’s mine.’

· Il n’apparaît pas non plus lorsqu’il s’agit de shop, place, house :
We bought some sausages at the butcher’s. (= butcher’s shop)
I heard the News at Steve’s. (= Steve’s house)

· On peut rendre compte de plusieurs relations de possession à la suite :
Have you met Jack’s sister’s teacher? (= the teacher of the sister of Jack)

· Le possesseur peut se composer de plusieurs éléments. Si ces éléments sont reliés par and ou or, le -’s se rattache alors au dernier mot :
We visited the King of Spain’s palace.
That’s either Alice or Tracey’s pencil case.

· On peut aussi employer le cas possessif pour indiquer le temps :
I’ve just done two days’ hard work.
We’re taking two weeks’ holiday at Easter.

3 Cas possessif et construction en of

Un cas possessif en -’s a souvent le même sens qu’une construction en of :
the company’s profits = the profits of the company

· Avec les noms propres, seul le cas possessif en -’s est possible :
Bill’s clothes

Faites bien la différence Dans certains cas les deux constructions n’ont pas le même sens :
my aunt’s paintings (= the paintings owned or painted by my aunt)
the paintings of my aunt (= the paintings showing my aunt)

· Le cas possessif en -’s porte la même détermination que l’article the. L’emploi d’un cas possessif double marque l’absence de détermination :
my father’s friend = l’ami de mon père (il est déterminé)
a friend of my father’s = un ami de mon père (un des amis de mon père)

· Des ambiguïtés peuvent parfois exister :
my children’s books

= 1. the books of my children

= 2. my books for children

Gender - Le Genre du Nom

Gender - Le Genre du Nom

En anglais, il n’existe pas de genre grammatical (l’article défini est invariable : the). Il existe en revanche un genre naturel (masculin, féminin, neutre) dont les pronoms personnels et réfléchis portent obligatoirement la marque.

1 Emploi des pronoms personnels

he : personne ou animal de sexe masculin
she : personne ou animal de sexe féminin
it (neutre) : chose, objet, animal non familier
There’s my brother. He’s a postman.
There’s my sister. She’s a bus driver.There’s my car. It’s a Ford.

2 he/ she

Certains noms désignant indifféremment l’un ou l’autre sexe peuvent être soit masculins, soit féminins :
doctor, friend, shop assistant, cousin, cyclist, dog

Le choix du pronom dépend alors du sexe de la personne ou de l’animal :
There’s my boss. Do you know him /her?
Don’t be frightened of the dog. He /She has never bitten anyone.

3 it

Cependant, quelques noms référant à des humains ou à des animaux, comme baby, peuvent être repris par le pronom it si l’on ignore leur sexe :
Listen to that baby. I wish it would be quiet.

Note :
Si le sexe d’une personne n’est pas connu ou si le fait de le connaître n’est pas essentiel :
* Traditionnellement l’usage formel emploie le masculin : he
If an employee is off sick, he must get a note from his doctor.
* Aujourd’hui on emploie he et she.
A teacher should always try to help his or her students.
* Familièrement on utilise they (them, their, etc.)
It isn’t easy living with an invalid when they can’t look after themselves.

Nouns - Le Nom

Nouns - Le Nom

En anglais le nom peut être :

1.	Singulier ou Pluriel one book; two books
2.	Masculin, Féminin ou Neutre He is my father. She is my mother. It is my coat.
3.	Dénombrable ou Indénombrable I need a dictionary. I need some water.
4.	Au Cas Possessif the woman’s coat; the women’s coats
5.	Simple ou Composé my sister; my sister- in- law a cup; a coffee cup

Irregular plurals - pluriels irréguliers

Irregular plurals - pluriels irréguliers

Irregular plurals - Pluriels irréguliers

Changement de voyelle à l’intérieur du nom :
man-men; woman-women; child-children
foot-feet; tooth-teeth; goose-geese
mouse-mice; louse-lice

Pluriel zéro
· Certains noms ont la même forme au singulier et au pluriel :
sheep, deer, fish, salmon, aircraft, series, species

· Certains noms qui font référence à des mesures, ou à des nombres cardinaux ont des pluriels réguliers quand ils sont utilisés seuls. Ils peuvent aussi avoir un pluriel zéro, s’ils sont précédés d’un nombre ou de many. C’est notamment le cas de hundred, thousand, pound (argent ou poids), foot, stone.
I have thousands of books. I’ve just bought two hundred more.
He’s six foot (or feet) tall and weighs fourteen stone.
Mots d’origine étrangère
· Certains mots, en particulier d’origine grecque ou latine, peuvent garder leur pluriel d’origine :
basis-bases; analysis-analyses
thesis-theses; referendum-referenda

Plural forms - Noms toujours au pluriel

Plural forms - Noms toujours au pluriel

Certains noms, qu’ils se terminent ou non par -s, sont des indénombrables qui sont suivis d’un verbe au pluriel
people, cattle, police, trousers, scissors, clothes, thanks
Some people are never satisfied!
Whose glasses are those? They’re mine.

Agreement of tenses; The tenses of the subjunctive

Agreement of tenses; The tenses of the subjunctive

The tenses of the subjunctive

Agreement of tenses is the name given to the rules governing the choice of tense in a subordinate clause, in relation to the tense which is used in the main clause. The action or the state expressed by the verb in the subordinate clause can be before, at the same time as or after the action or state expressed in the main clause

· The present subjunctive is used in the subordinate clause when the verb in the main clause is in the present or future indicative:
Je redoute qu’il vienne.
Je lui dirai qu’il ne vienne pas.

· The perfect subjunctive is commonly used when the verb in the main clause is in a past tense:
Je redoutais qu’il ne soit parti sans moi.
Je souhaitais qu’il ait réussi.

This is only possible if the action in the subordinate clause takes place before that of the main clause, as in the examples above. Otherwise the present subjunctive is used, even when the verb in the main clause is in a past tense:
Il voulait que je le fasse. (He wanted me to do it.)
Je craignais qu’il ne soit pas d’accord. (I was afraid he wouldn’t agree.)

In literary French, the imperfect subjunctive may still be found:
Je craignais qu’il ne fût pas d’accord.

Discours direct et indirect - Reported speech French

Discours direct et indirect - Reported speech French

1.	Direct Speech
2.	Indirect Speech

Reported speech is repeating what someone said in the past. There are two different kinds: direct speech and indirect speech.
Il m’a dit  : ‘Je te rappellerai demain.’ (= direct speech)
Il m’a dit qu’il me rappellerait demain. (= indirect speech)

1. Direct speech

· In direct speech the original words are repeated in exactly the same way as they were originally said:
Marie m’a dit : ‘Tu n’as pas changé du tout !’

· The person whose speech is being reported can be the same as the person speaking:
Je me suis demandé : ‘Est-ce que c’est vrai ?’

However, it is most often other people whose words are being quoted:
Je ne me souviens plus de ce qu’il m’a dit, si c’était : ‘Tu devrais lui en parler’, ou bien : ‘Je suis sûr que tu lui en as déjà parlé.’

· In both French and English, direct speech is indicated by quotation marks around the words quoted.

· In written French, the change from one speaker to another is indicated by a dash. The quotation marks are closed only at the end of an unbroken section of conversation, not at the end of each speaker’s comments as in English:
‘C’est bizarre !
- Pourquoi ?
- Je ne sais pas, je trouve ça surprenant.’

· Sections of the conversation can be introduced or followed by verbs such as dire, demander, s’écrier etc.:
‘Qu’en pensez-vous ?’, demanda-t-elle.
‘Encore !’, s’écria-t-il.

Note:
Remember that the normal order of subject and verb is inverted when the verb follows direct speech.

2. Indirect speech

· In indirect speech the words actually spoken are changed and appear in a subordinate clause which is introduced by a verb of saying of some kind:
Elle m’a annoncé qu’elle allait se marier.
Il m’a dit à quel point il était déçu.

· Indirect speech is very common in story-telling:
Je n’ai pas dit qu’il ne se sentait pas bien, mais qu’il était un peu déprimé.

English irregular verbs - Verbes irréguliers anglais

English irregular verbs - Verbes irréguliers anglais

A list of common English irregular verbs, including their base form, past simple and past participle.
The English language has a large number of irregular verbs. In the great majority of these, the past participle and/or past tense is not formed according to the usual patterns of English regular verbs. Other parts of the verb — such as the present 3rd person singular -s or -es, and present participle -ing — may still be formed regularly.
Among the exceptions are the verb to be and certain defective verbs which cannot be conjugated into certain tenses.
This table of irregular verbs gives you infinitive simple past and past participle

English irregular verbs - Verbes irréguliers Anglais
Infinitive	Simple past	Past participle
abide arise awake baby-sit be bear beat become befall beget begin behold bend bereave beseech beset bestride bet bid bid bind bite bleed blow bottle-feed break breed bring broadcast build burn burst buy cast catch chide choose cleave cleave cling clothe come cost creep cross-breed crow cut dare deal dig dive do draw dream drink drip-feed drive dwell eat fall feed feel fight find fit flee fling fly forbear forbid force-feed forecast forego foresee foretell forget forgive forsake freeze get gild gird give go grind grow hang have hear heave hew hide hit hold house-sit hurt inset intercut keep kneel knit know lay lead lean leap learn leave lend let lie light lip-read lose make mean meet melt mishit misread misspell misspend mistake misunderstand mow offset on-drive outbid outburst outdrink outdrive outeat outfight outfly outgive outhit outride outshine outspeak outswim outthink outwear overbeat overcome overdraw overdrive overfall overfeed overhang overkeep overlie override overrun oversee oversew overshoot oversleep overspread overstrew panic-buy partake pay pinch-hit plead proof-read put quick-freeze quit read rearise reawake rebuild recatch redeal redo redraw redrive refreeze regive regrind rehang relet remake rend rerun resay resell resit restring retake retell rethink rewind rewrite rid ride ring rise roughcast rough-hew run saw say see seek sell send set sew shake shear shed shine shit shoe shoot show shrink shut sight-read sing sink sit slay sleep slide sling slink slit smell smite sneak sow speak speed spell spend spill spin spit split spoil spoon-feed spread spring stall-feed stand steal stick sting stink strew stride strike string strive swear sweat sweep swell swim swing take teach tear tell think thrive throw thrust tread typecast typewrite underbid underbuy underdo undergo understand undertake underwrite undo unfreeze unhang unsling unstick unwind updraw upgo uphang uprun upsend upset wake waylay wear weave wed weep wet win wind window-shop withdraw withhold withstand wring write	abode arose awoke / awaked baby-sat was / were bore beat became befell begot began beheld bent / bended bereaved besought beset bestrode bet / betted bade bid bound bit bled blew bottle-fed broke bred brought broadcast built burnt / burned burst bought cast caught chid / chided chose cleaved / clave clove / cleft clung clothed / clad came cost crept cross-bred crowed / crew cut dared / durst dealt dug dived / dove did drew dreamt / dreamed drank drip-fed drove dwelt / dwelled ate fell fed felt fought found fit / fitted fled flung flew forbore forbad(e) force-fed forecasted forewent foresaw foretold forgot forgave forsook froze got gilt / gilded girt / girded gave went ground grew hung / hanged had heard hove / heaved hewed hid hit held house-sat hurt inset intercut kept knelt / kneeled knit / knitted knew laid led leant / leaned leapt / leaped learnt / learned left lent let lay lit / lighted lip-read lost made meant met melted mishit misread mispelt / mispelled mispent mistook misunderstood mowed offset on-drove outbid outburst outdrank outdrove outate outfought outflew outgave outhit outrode outshone outspoke outswam outthought outwore overbeat overcame overdrew overdrove overfell overfed overhung overkept overlaid overrode overran oversaw oversewed overshot overslept overspread overstrewed panic-bought partook paid pinch-hit pled / pleaded proof-read put quick-froze quit / quitted read rearose reawaked / reawoke rebuilt recaught redealt redone redrew redrove refroze regave reground rehung / rehanged relet remade rent reran resaid resold resat restrung retook retold rethought rewound rewrote rid / ridded rode rang rose roughcast rough-hewn ran sawed said saw sought sold sent set sewed shook sheared shed shone shitted / shat shod / shoed shot showed shrank / shrunk shut sight-read sang sank sat slew slept slid slung slunk slit smelt / smelled smote snuck / sneaked sowed spoke sped / speeded spelt / spelled spent spilt / spilled spun spat / spit split spoilt / spoiled spoon-fed spread sprang stall-fed stood stole stuck stung stank strewed strode struck strung strove swore sweat / sweated swept swelled swam swung took taught tore told thought thrived / throve threw thrust trod typecast typewrote underbid underbought underdid underwent understood undertook underwrote undid unfroze unhung unslung unstuck unwound updrew upwent uphung upran upsent upset woke / waked waylaid wore wove wedded wept wet / wetted won wound window-shopped withdrew withheld withstood wrung wrote	abided arisen awoken baby-sat been borne beaten become befallen begotten begun beheld bent / bended bereft besought beset bestridden bet / betted bidden bid bound bitten bled blown bottle-fed broken bred brought broadcast built burnt / burned burst bought cast caught chid / chidden / chided chosen cleaved cloven / cleft clung clothed / clad come cost crept cross-bred crowed cut dared / durst dealt dug dived did drawn dreamt / dreamed drunk drip-fed driven dwelt / dwelled eaten fallen fed felt fought found fit / fitted fled flung flown forborne forbidden force-fed forecasted foregone foreseen foretold forgotten forgiven forsaken frozen got / gotten gilt / gilded girt / girded given gone ground grown hung / hanged had heard hove / heaved hewn / hewed hidden hit held house-sat hurt inset intercut kept knelt / kneeled knit / knitted known laid led leant / leaned leapt / leaped learnt / learned left lent let lain lit / lighted lip-read lost made meant met melted / molten mishit misread mispelt / mispelled mispent mistaken misunderstood mown / mowed offset on-driven outbidden outburst outdrunk outdriven outeaten outfought outflown outgiven outhit outridden outshone outspoken outswum outthought outworn overbeaten overcome overdrawn overdriven overfallen overfed overhung overkept overlaid overridden overrun overseen oversewn overshot overslept overspread overstrewed panic-bought partaken paid pinch-hit pled / pleaded proof-read put quick-frozen quit / quitted read rearisen reawoken rebuilt recaught redealt redone redrawn redriven refrozen regiven reground rehung / rehanged relet remade rent rerun resaid resold resat restrung retaken retold rethought rewound rewritten rid ridden rang risen roughcast rough-hewn run sawn / sawed said seen sought sold sent set sewn / sewed shaken shorn / sheared shed shone shitted / shat shod / shoed shot shown / showed shrunk / shrunken shut sight-read sung sunk / sunken sat slain slept slid slung slunk slit smelt / smelled smitten snuck / sneaked sown / sowed spoked sped / speeded spelt / spelled spent spilt / spilled spun spat / spit split spoilt / spoiled spoon-fed spread sprung stall-fed stood stolen stuck stung stunk strewn / strewed stridden struck / stricken strung striven sworn sweat / sweated swept swollen / swelled swum swung taken taught torn told thought thrived / thriven thrown thrust trodden typecast typewritten underbidden underbought underdid undergone understood undertaken underwritten undone unfrozen unhung unslung unstuck unwound updrawn upwent uphung uprun upsent upset woken / waked waylaid worn woven wedded wept wet / wetted won wound window-shopped withdrawn withheld withstood wrung written

Accents, the diaeresis and the cedilla

Accents, the diaeresis and the cedilla

1.	Accents ( é ; è ; ê )
2.	The Diaeresis ( ï ; ë )
3.	The Cedilla ( ç )

1. Accents· Accents are placed on vowels to show how the vowel is to be pronounced.

· There are three kinds of accent in French:
- the acute, as in é
- the grave, as in è
- the circumflex, as in ê.

· The table below shows the possible combinations of accents and vowels:

	a	e	i	o	u
acute		é
grave	à	è			ù
circumflex	â	ê	î	ô	û

1.1 The acuteThe acute accent is found only on the vowel e. It indicates the sound [e]:
allongé été [ete] départ [depar]

Note:In the following words the acute does not indicate a closed e [e], but an open e événement (second é only) réglementaire

1.2 The grave· On an e, the grave accent indicates the soundtrès, près, règle
· On an a or a u, it is used to differentiate between words which would otherwise be written the same:
- a and à : Elle a voulu aller à la mer.
- la and là : La valise est là.
- ou and où : Tu viens ou non ? - Va où tu veux.

The vowels à and où are pronounced the same as a and ou. The accent has no effect on pronunciation; it is there merely to distinguish the words in writing.
1.3 The circumflex· On an e, the circumflex accent indicates the sound être, forêt, vêtu
· On an a, it indicates a more open sound. The difference between â and a is rather slight and is not observed by all speakers.câble [kabl] ; grâce [gras]
· On an o, it indicates the sound [o]:pôle [pol] ; côté [kote]
· On an i, the circumflex does not alter pronunciation at all. The letters i and î - and ai and aî - are pronounced in exactly the same way:dîner [dine] ; naître
· On a u, it does not alter the pronunciation at all. The letters u and û are pronounced in exactly the same way:sûr [syr] ; goût [gu]
Note:* Remember the spelling of the following word:piqûre [pikyr]

* A circumflex is always found on the first and second persons plural of the past historic: faire è nous fîmes, vous fîtes
avoir è nous eûmes, vous eûtes

*The circumflex is also used to distinguish the possessive adjectives notre and votre from the corresponding possessive pronouns le nôtre and le vôtre.

*Verbs in -aître and -oître take a circumflex in all those forms where an i comes before a t:Il le connaît.

2. The diaeresis· When it is placed above an i, the diaeresis indicates that the i and the preceding vowel have to be pronounced separately:
haïr [’air] ; naïf [naif] ; coïncidence

· When it is placed on an e, the diaeresis indicates that the e of the feminine of words ending in -gu is not pronounced:

ambigu	è	ambiguë
aigu	è	aiguë
exigu	è	exiguë

3. The cedilla· A cedilla is placed under the letter c in front of the vowels a, u and o to indicate that the c is to be pronounced [s] and not [k]:
leçon ; façade [fasad] ; déçu [desy]

· In front of e and i, c is pronounced [s] and the cedilla is not required:
face [fas] ; ceci